In the early 15th century, a young peasant girl from Domrémy, France, named Joan of Arc emerged from obscurity to command armies and alter the course of the Hundred Years’ War. Inspired by divine visions, she claimed to be acting under the guidance of saints to save France from English domination. While many saw her as a holy figure and a patriotic symbol, the powerful institutions of her time deemed her a heretic. Her capture, trial, and execution as a heretic represent one of history’s most controversial and politically motivated events. Exploring why Joan of Arc was labeled a heretic reveals the complex intersection of religion, politics, and gender in medieval Europe.
The Political Climate of 15th-Century France
War and Division
During Joan’s time, France was embroiled in the Hundred Years’ War a prolonged struggle between the French and the English over control of the French throne. The legitimacy of Charles VII, the Dauphin of France, was heavily contested. Joan claimed that her visions directed her to support Charles and lead him to coronation in Reims, a critical step to affirm his claim to the crown.
Support and Suspicion
While Charles VII accepted Joan’s help and even sanctioned her participation in military campaigns, her rise to fame brought her both loyal supporters and dangerous enemies. The English and their Burgundian allies viewed her as a major threat, not only militarily but ideologically. Her success on the battlefield was interpreted by some as supernatural or even demonic. Her gender, social status, and spiritual claims made her an easy target for accusations of heresy.
Joan’s Capture and Trial
Seized by the Burgundians
In 1430, Joan was captured near Compiègne by the Burgundians, allies of the English. Rather than being ransomed, as was common practice for prisoners of war, she was sold to the English. Her fate was sealed not as a soldier but as a supposed heretic.
Ecclesiastical Court
The trial was held by an ecclesiastical court in Rouen under the supervision of Bishop Pierre Cauchon, a pro-English churchman. Though it was meant to be a religious proceeding, the trial was deeply political. Cauchon sought to discredit Joan in order to delegitimize Charles VII, who owed his coronation to her efforts.
Charges of Heresy
The Nature of Heresy
Heresy, in the medieval Church, meant the holding of beliefs contrary to the official teachings of the Church. Joan was accused not only of false prophecy but also of cross-dressing and claiming divine inspiration both serious offenses in that era.
Key Accusations
- Claiming divine revelation through voices and visions
- Wearing male military clothing, which was deemed inappropriate for a woman
- Refusing to submit her visions to the Church’s judgment
- Persisting in her actions despite warnings from Church officials
Her assertion that she received direct guidance from saints such as Michael, Catherine, and Margaret was seen as bypassing Church authority. For the court, this was an act of spiritual rebellion a cornerstone of heresy.
Her Clothing as Evidence
Joan’s choice to wear male attire was used as a major point against her. According to Deuteronomy 22:5, cross-dressing was a sin, and the court leveraged this scripture to portray her as violating God’s law. Joan defended her clothing as necessary for protection among soldiers and claimed it was part of God’s instructions.
The Trial Process
An Unfair Hearing
Joan’s trial violated numerous legal standards, even for the time. She was denied legal counsel, imprisoned by secular rather than ecclesiastical authorities, and interrogated under pressure and trickery. The judges were predominantly English sympathizers, and the trial was designed not to discover the truth, but to convict.
Her Courage Under Pressure
Despite intense questioning, threats, and isolation, Joan demonstrated remarkable composure and intelligence. She famously deflected theological traps, such as when asked if she was in God’s grace. She replied, If I am not, may God put me there; and if I am, may God keep me there a response that prevented the judges from labeling her a heretic based solely on her answer.
Execution and Aftermath
Recantation and Final Sentence
Initially, Joan signed a document renouncing her visions and agreeing to conform to Church authority. However, within days, she resumed wearing men’s clothing possibly because her dress was taken or to protect herself from sexual assault. The court declared this relapse a return to heresy and sentenced her to death.
Burned at the Stake
On May 30, 1431, Joan of Arc was executed in Rouen. She was tied to a stake and burned alive before a crowd. She was only 19 years old. Before dying, she called upon Jesus and declared her innocence. Her ashes were scattered in the Seine to prevent any relics or remains from becoming objects of veneration.
Posthumous Rehabilitation
Reopening the Case
In 1456, Pope Callixtus III authorized a retrial of Joan’s case. A panel of theologians and legal scholars re-examined the trial and found that it was politically motivated and legally flawed. Joan was declared innocent and officially recognized as a martyr. Her name was cleared, and her reputation transformed from heretic to heroine.
Canonization
Joan of Arc’s legacy continued to grow over the centuries. In 1920, nearly 500 years after her execution, she was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church as Saint Joan of Arc. Today, she is remembered as a symbol of courage, faith, and patriotism.
Legacy and Interpretation
Historical vs. Theological Judgment
Joan’s condemnation as a heretic was driven more by politics than theology. Her military role, unorthodox behavior, and success challenged the gender norms and power structures of the day. Her trial serves as a powerful example of how religious charges can be manipulated for political ends.
A Symbol Across Generations
Joan of Arc has become a national icon in France, a saint in the Catholic Church, and a feminist figure in modern discussions. Her story continues to inspire people around the world who admire her bravery in the face of injustice.
Joan of Arc’s trial as a heretic was a tragic miscarriage of justice rooted in fear, politics, and religious control. Though condemned in her own lifetime, history vindicated her as a visionary and a martyr. The label of heretic ultimately failed to define her legacy, which today stands as a testament to unwavering conviction, spiritual faith, and heroic resistance in the face of overwhelming power.